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Lycian Tombs
All pre-Greek people of Anatolia built beautiful monumental tombs associated
with some form of ancestor worship. The Lycians developed this form of art to
perfection and the entire landscape of Lycia is still dotted with these
fascinating funerary monuments. The most recent count has revealed one thousand
and eighty-five examples still intact, divided among four types: monumental or
heroon-type tombs (six known), pillar tombs (35), sarcophagi (60) and rock-cut
house-type tombs (950).
Pillar Tombs are the oldest form of tomb and were used mainly for important
dynasts.
Pillar tombs consists of a monolith which tapers towards the top and stands
either directly on the rock or on a stepped base. The pillar usually has two
chambers, one of which is square and carved out of the upper part of the pillar.
The stone plate forming the lid of the pillar tomb can be of various shapes.
Sometimes the pilllar tombs are decorated with reliefs.
Photo at right: pillar tombs of Xanthos - Harpy Tomb is on the right with casts
of its releifs - originals in the British Museum. The tomb on the left is an
interesting hybrid of a pillar tomb and a sarcophagus.
Sarcophagi are a common form of burial all over the world, however Lycian
sarcophagi are distinctive - especially for their great size. These sarcophagi
usually consist of four parts: a stepped base, a hyposorion, a huge flat plate
and the sarcophagus (coffin and lid). Almost all have a pointed lid with a
"Gothic" crest. In some sarcophagi slaves and dependents were held in the
hyposorion. Lycian sarcophagi are often decorated with reliefs, usually on the
sides and crest of the lid, but sometimes on the grave-chamber. Most of the
intact Lycian sarcophagi belong to the Roman Age. These are generally smaller
and simpler than those preceding them, with a rounded lid, though still with a
crest. (photo above: Pinara)
Rock-Cut Tombs
These are the most numerous of all types of tombs and some are perhaps the most
visually striking of all Lycian tombs - elaborate funeral chambers carved
directly into the rock face, usually into a cliff. The oldest of these are at
Pinara, hundreds of simple pigeon-hole caves honeycombing the cliff face. More
often, the tombs are carved like the facade of timber Lycian houses with
protruding beams, usually with one or two stories, sometimes three. The most
elaborate house-type tombs are those carved in the form of Ionic temples, the
largest and most famous at Telmessos (Fethiye) - the ‘Tomb of Amyntas’. These
temple-type tombs have two columns, an epistyle and a pediment and usually have
elaborate reliefs, such as the ‘King’s Tomb’ at Pinara and the ‘Painted Tomb’ at
Myra. Rock-cut house-type tombs often held more than one body - many tombs have
several benches inside upon which the dead were laid, often families. (photo
above: Myra)
Rock-cut house-type tombs at Pinara displaying the characteristic "wooden" beams
of ancient Lycian houses.
Tomb of Amyntas, Telmessos
Detail of a bull's horns on a tomb at Pinara. This detail is an example of the
continued influence of the Lycians' Anatolian heritage - an ancient symbol of
courage and power.
Monumental Tombs (also called Heroon) are few in Lycia. The earliest examples of
5th century BC, at Xanthos, Lymra and Apollonia, may not have been actual tombs,
but rather hero-cult centers. The remaining four of these tombs of fourth
century BC were most likely genuine ‘ruler-tombs’, the earliest being the
beautiful ‘Nereid Monumument’ from Xanthos (now in the British Museum).
Detail from the Nereid Monument, British Museum
Care of the Tombs
The Lycians' had a large ancestor cult and so tombs were very well-cared for. A
few tombs have inscriptions which reveal that most tombs were prepared while
their owners were living. These epitaphs consist mainly of the names of the
deceased and many end with a curse or the price of a fine should the tomb be
violated. Athena, or Malija in the Lycian language, was the goddess responsible
for punishing the violaters of tombs. Each tomb was put under the care of a
special committee called mintis which looked after the safety and comfort of the
deceased and also collected fines for the violation of graves. Since the
disappearance of the mintis thousands of Lycian tombs have been looted for their
treasures throughout the centuries, yet their structures remain intact.
Lycian Sites
Xanthos
Xanthos was the capital city of the Lycian Federation and its greatest city for
most of Lycian history. It was made famous to the Western world in the 19th
century by its British discoverer Charles Fellows. Xanthos is very old - finds
date back to the 8th century BC, but it is possible that the site may have
existed during the Bronze Age or during the first centuries of the Iron Age
The history of Xanthos is quite a violent - the Xanthosians twice demonstrated
the fierce independence of the Lycian people when they chose to commit mass
suicide rather than submit to invading forces. The Xanthosian men set fire to
their women, children, slaves and treasure upon the acropolis before making
their final doomed attack upon the invading Persians. Xanthos was later
repopulated but the same gruesome story repeated itself in 42 BC when Brutus
attacked the city during the Roman civil wars in order to recruit troops and
raise money. Brutus was shocked by the Lycians' suicide and offered his soldiers
a reward for each Xanthosian saved. Only 150 citizens were rescued.
Xanthos stands atop an elevated area within the Xanthos valley with the Xanthos
River flowing closely under the city’s west side. From this elevation one
receives a supreme view of the valley surrounded by the spectacular Taurus
Mountains.
Although Charles Fellows carted away most of the finds of Xanthos (now in the
British Museum) many interesting monuments and structures remain, including two
of the most interesting tombs in Lycia.
Features of Xanthos include:
The "Harpy Tomb" - Sitting upon a massive base is a thick pillar with a
grave-chamber and crowning slabs. The whole thing stands about 25 feet high. The
chamber at the top was marble and decorated with splendid reliefs (which some
belief to depict harpies). The reliefs are now in the British Museum but have
been replaced by some very nice casts.
Pillar Tomb - A completely unique tomb in Lycia, actually two-tombs-in-one - a
normal Lycian sarcophagus stands upon a shorter-than-usual pillar tomb. It is
quite tall, only a little shorter than the Harpy Tomb. 4th century BC.
The "Xanthian Obelisk" - a tall pillar tomb covered with Greek and the longest
Lycian inscription known to exist. This writing was instrumental in helping to
begin to understand the riddle of the difficult Lycian language.
Other Features of Note include an amphitheatre, a Roman arch, a Byzantine church
with lovely mosaic floors and a fortress at the top of the acropolis.
Kekova-Simena
Kekova-Simena is a very popular Lycian site, situated upon one of the most
attractive spots of the Turkish coast. The name "Kekova" is Turkish for "plain
of thyme" and describes the area of and around the ancient Lycian sunken city of
Simena. A charming mix of ancient, medieval and modern history makes
Kekova-Simena interesting as well as beautiful. In ancient time s
Simena was a small fishing village, later a Crusaders’ outpost of the Knights of
St. John and now the sleepy fishing village of Kale.
The ancient city of Simena was once of two parts - an island and a coastal part
of the mainland. On the mainland the charming village of Kale ("castle") stands
today, its buildings mingling with ancient and medieval structures. At the top
of the village sits a well-preserved crusaders’ castle built partially upon
ancient Lycian foundations. Inside the castle is the smallest amphitheatre of
Lycia. At the eastern end of the
village is a cluster of some very nice sarcophagi overlooking the sea and
surrounded by ancient olive trees. Near the harbour of Kale is another
sarcophagus, popping up from the water. Across the bay, along the island are the
half-submerged ruins of the residential part of Simena, caused by the downward
shift of land by the terrible earthquakes of the 2nd century AD. Half of the
houses are submerged and staircases descend into the water. Foundations of
buildings and the ancient harbor are also seen below the sea.
Kekova is an enjoyable place to visit for its beauty alone and is popular with
yachters. It is a peaceful place of history, gorgeous turquoise water, sun,
islands, unspoilt nature, blue skies and wonderful(!!) swimming.
Tlos
As one of the six principal cities of Lycia, Tlos once bore the title of "the
very brilliant metropolis of the Lycian nation". It is one of the oldest and
largest settlements of Lycia and was inhabited until the 19th century by Turks.
Tlos lies on the east side of the Xanthos valley, and is dominated by its
acropolis. This rocky outcrop slopes up from the plateau, but ends on the west,
north and northeast in almost perpendicular cliffs. On its slope are several
Lycian sarcophagi and many temple-type tombs are cut into the face of the
acropolis hill. The influence of many cultures upon Tlos has resulted in an
interesting collage of structures.:
"Tomb of Bellerophon" - The most interesting tomb of Tlos, a large temple-type
tomb featuring a relief of the legendary (from Greek myth) hero Bellerophon
riding Pegasus the winged horse. Punished by the Lycian king Iobates for an
improper love affair, Bellerophon was sent to kill the Chimaera, a
fire-breathing monster. With the aid of Pegasus, a gift from Athena, Bellerophon
slew the monster from the air and then married the king's daughter. From their
offspring came the later rulers of Lycia. Today the Chimaera continues to exist
as a perpetually-burning fire in eastern Lycia near Olympos.
Castle of "Bloody Chief Ali" - Crowning the top of Tlos' acropolis is the castle
of this notorious Turkish lord, built upon the foundations of a Lycian fortress.
The view from the top is spectacular - it overlooks a lovely valley of fertile
fields and  orchards with
mountains rising in the distance.
Byzantine Basilica - Remains of a Roman gymnasium and bath converted into a
Byzantine basilica. Inside is the "Yedi Kapý" ( "Seven Gates") - a dramatic set
of seven arches overlooking a lush valley.
Amphitheatre - A large theatre with many highly-decorated carvings scattered
about.
Myra
Myra ("Myrrh") was a leading city of the Lycian Union and surpassed Xanthos in
early Byzantine times to become the capital city of Lycia.
The date of Myra's foundation is unknown. There is no literary mention of it
before the 1st century BC, when it is said to be one of the six leading cities
of the Lycian Union (the other five were Xanthos, Tlos, Pinara, Patara and
Olympos). It is believed to date back much further however, as an outer
defensive wall has been dated to the 5th century BC.
In Roman times Myra was on the sea and was the port where St. Paul changed ships
on his way to Rome in about 60 AD. The city is well known for its amphitheatre
(the largest in Lycia) and the plethora of rock-cut tombs carved in the cliff
above the theatre.
Constantine made Myra the capitol of Lycia as well as a bishopric. St. Nicholas
was one of Myra's early bishops in the 4th century AD, famous for his miracles
and known for his kindness. He later became the patron saint of Greece and
Russia as well as of children, sailors, merchants, scholars, those unjustly
imprisoned and travelers. Legend has it that St. Nicholas threw bags of gold
down a chimney to three sisters as dowries to save them from a life of
prostitution. This legend led to the development of Santa Claus. After the death
of St. Nicholas, Myra became a rich pilgrimage centre with many new churches
built.
Because of Arab raids, flooding and earthquakes, Myra was mostly abandoned by
the early 11th century. When the Turks arrived they found a much-shrunken Myra.
Today most of Myra is buried underground because its port eventually silted up.
However, what remains is very impressive - a large theatre with the backdrop of
Myra’s famous rock-cut tombs. The sight of these is quite striking.
Features of Myra include:
Amphitheatre - Myra's Greco-Roman theatre is the largest theatre in Lycia and
one of the main attractions of Myra. Its double-vaulted corridors are still
preserved and an inscription in a stall space reads "place of the vendor
Gelasius" - the location of an ancient concessions stand.
Rock-Cut Tombs - To the west of the theatre the steep cliff is pock-marked with
a huge number of closely-packed rock-cut tombs in an asymmetric pattern, all
temple type rock-cut tombs. Most of them are from the 4th century BC, and many
contain funeral scenes in relief, some scenes portraying the daily life of the
deceased. Although most of the tombs are plain today, Charles Fellows tells that
upon his discovery of the city in 1840 he found the tombs colourfully painted
red, yellow and blue. The entire cliff face must have been a bright riot of
colour once upon a time.
Church of St. Nicholas - This church can be visited a short distance from the
site of Myra and is well-worth the trip. Inside the church is the sarcophagus of
St. Nicholas although his remains were taken to Italy during the Latin Crusades
of the 11th century. It is said that upon smashing the lid of the tomb the
thieves were almost overcome by the powerful smell of myrrh. However, the
Venetians and Russians also claim to have the bones of the saint.
Pinara
The beautiful site of Pinara was one of the three major cities in the Xanthos
valley and one of the six principal cities of Lycia. Settlement at Pinara
existed as early as the 5th century BC. It was probably founded as an extension
of the overpopulated Xanthos.
There is no other Lycian site quite like Pinara with its untouched, gorgeous
mountain setting of fragrant pines, two thousand year-old olive trees, many
wildflowers and herbs and its stunning view of the Xanthos valley.
Because of its remoteness, Pinara remains undiscovered by most people and so
retains its tranquil and (truly) mystical atmosphere. The city sits perched high
on a mountain reached by a twisting track road and gives one an unparalled
eastern view far across the Xanthos valley. It is towered over by a more than
two thousand foot high flat-topped mountain cone honeycombed with hundreds of
rectangular burial tombs on its vertical east face. This round cone is the
acropolis of Pinara and from this the city received its name, "Pinara" meaning
"round" in the Lycian language. Below the acropolis spreads the city, stretching
over long terraces which extend in three directions.
Pinara was once a religious center dedicated to Apollo, Athena, and Aphrodite,
and is also believed to have been some sort of phallic worship site - evidence
of which can be seen on a very interesting carving.
Features of Pinara include:
Temples - The remains of several temples can be seen. Aphrodite's temple has
unusual heart-shaped columns.
Tombs - Many large tombs exist within Pinara, mostly temple-type and
free-standing sarcophagi - including one of the largest sarcophagi in Lycia. The
most fascinating tomb is the "King's Tomb", built for an important ruler and
featuring very detailed reliefs depicting scenes of walled cities.
Amphitheatre - A Greek-style theatre at the base of the city from which one gets
a rather nice view of the ruins above.
Letoon
Letoon was the sacred cult center of Lycia and its most important sanctuary
dedicated to the three national deities of Lycia - Leto and her twin children
Apollo and Artemis. Legend has it that Leto was loved by Zeus, but was chased
away by jealous Hera until Leto gave birth to her twins on the island of Delos.
Another story gives the birthplace as the source of the Xanthos River. One story
tells that shepherds angrily refused to let her drink from a fountain - she
turned them into frogs in retaliation. Still another story says that wolves
helped her find the Xanthos River. In gratitude she named the country Lycia:
Lykos is Greek for wolf.
Letoon was a sanctuary precinct and not actually a city, though it did have a
settlement surrounding it. This was the spiritual heart of Lycia, its federal
sanctuary and the place of national festivals. Letoon was the center of pagan
cults activity until perhaps the 5th century AD when Lycia was ravaged by Arab
attacks and the area started to silt up with sand brought by the Xanthos River.
An inscription found at Letoon refers to the establishment of the cult as well
as its rules for monthly and annual sacrifices - offenders against this were
found guilty before Leto, her children and the Nymphs. The Lycian cult of Leto
was one of the many forms of the wide-spread mother-goddess religion which
originated in ancient Anatolia and spread throughout the ancient world.
Features of Letoon include:
Temples - Remains of three temples, each dedicated to one of the three deities
of Letoon are located side by side in the center of the site. The largest and
best-preserved is that of Leto, in the Ionic order, likely dating back to the
5th century BC. The remains of an even older temple have been found beneath the
existing one. A second temple lies to the east, decorated with Doric friezes,
dated c. 4th century BC. This temple has been attributed to Apollo and displays
a very nice floor mosaic depicting his symbols - bow and arrow, sun and lyre.
Between the temples stands of Leto and Apollo lies a third building, smaller and
with excellent masonry. This is the temple of Artemis and dates back to c. 4th
century BC, like the temple of Apollo.
Nymphaeum - To the south and west of the temples is a nymphaeum connected to a
sacred spring, always full of terrapins and frogs said to be the unfortunate
shepards transformed by Leto’s vengeance. This was perhaps used in an religious
immersion ceremony.
Amphitheatre - Letoon has a nice theatre with vaulted passages leading to
entrances on either side. The entrance on the south-west side has an interesting
carving of a row of sixteen masks including the faces of Dionysus, a satyr and a
comic old woman.
Patara
Patara was the major port of Lycia, located at the mouth of the Xanthos River,
until it silted up and turned into a malaria-plagued marsh.
Patara was a very wealthy city due to trade and was one of the six principal
cities of Lycia. Following its capture by Alexander the Great it became an
important naval base as well. Patara’s oracle at the renown temple of Apollo
(not yet found) was said to rival that at Delphi and the temple equaled the
reputation of the famous temple on the island of Delos. It was believed that
Apollo lived at Delos during the summer but spent his winters at Patara Omens
were interpreted in these two towns during the respective seasons.
In a hymn attributed to Homer in the honour of Apollo, Apollo is mentioned with
both Lycia and Delos:
(ll. 179-181) O Lord, Lycia is yours and lovely Maeonia and Miletus, charming
city by the sea, but over wave-girt Delos you greatly reign your own self.
In Christian history Patara is famous for being a place of St. Paul’s missionary
work at the end of his third missionary journey as he changed ships on route to
Jerusalem. Patara was also the birthplace of St. Nicholas (c.300 AD), bishop of
Myra and the future Santa Claus.
One (of many) legends about Patara tells that a Spanish girl was carrying of
“patara” – a bowl of cakes – which she intended to give to Apollo. She dropped
the bowl and it floated ashore to the city, giving it its name.
The structures at Patara now visible include a splendid Roman-type triple-arched
triumphal arch in excellent condition, many sarcophagi, a bath complex,
Byzantine basilica, amphitheatre and the large Granary of Hadrian. Much of
Patara remains undiscovered, buried in the shifting sand, including the famous
Temple of Apollo. However, some very exciting excavations have been going on
over the past year revealing many structures previously hidden by the dunes.
Patara beach should not be missed with its gorgeous landscape and great
swimming. It is a national park and home to many birds, also the breeding ground
of the endangered Loggerhead turtle. The beach is an 18 kilometer-long strip of
sand bordered on its ends by mountains and along its length by sand dunes and
the large marshy area which once was the celebrated port of Patara.
Arycanda
Arycanda is a unique Lycian city, built upon five large terraces ascending a
mountain slope, and was known for having the most pleasure-loving (and
debt-ridden) citizens. The city overlooks a magnificent valley and its view
makes it one of the most spectacular sites in Lycia.
Arycanda is known to be one of the oldest Lycian sites - its name ends with
-anda, indicitive of its Anatolian origin dating back as far as the second
millennium BC. Some of the oldest coins of Lycia (5th c. BC were also found here
during a recent digging; the site is under continuous excavation.
Some features of this magnificent city include the largest bath complex in
Lycia, monumental kings' temple tombs, agora (some of the shops can still be
seen), amphitheatre, odeon and an unusual stadium on the top terrace of the
city.
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